Minggu, 02 Desember 2012

Contrastive Conjunction


Contrastive conjunction

  • Showing the difference between two things when you compare them
  • A conjunction is a word that joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses.
  • Contrastive conjunctions are used to emphasize the contrast between two ideas and to link two ideas    or statement that are considered to be different. 


Although ,Even Though, Tough
·    In the sentence, "although" is equivalent in meaning to "though" and "even though". However  "although" is the most formal than of these three, with "even though" and "though" being more commonly  found in the less formal writing of magazines and newspapers.
·   Use them to signal that the statement in the main clause is unexpected or surprising, or to admit a fact that should be considered less important  that stated in the main clause.
·   When placed after the main clause, (even) though limits or reduces the strength of claims stated in the main clause.

Example of Altough
v  Although there is no universal agreement within the scientific community on the impacts of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, it has been theorized that they may lead to an increase in the average temperature of the Earth"s surface.
v  There is no universal agreement among scientists and climatologists on the potential impacts of an increase in the average temperature of the Earth, although it has been hypothesized that it could lead to a variety of changes in the global climate, sea level, agricultural patterns, and ecosystem.

Example of (Even) Though
v (Even) though climate change cannot be predicted for a specific region, experience with natural climatic variability leads many scientists to believe that even relatively small changes to climate may be socially and economically significant.
v  Nia had studied hard, (Even) tough she failed the test.
v  (Even) tough he loses his job as Arts Minister, I think he"ll continue to serve in the government .
v  (Even) though I had two hours to spare for shopping, I couldn"t find the suit I wanted.

Whereas ; While
Although basically having the same meaning as "while", "whereas" is more emphatic, tends to come after the main clause, and tends to contrast opposite sides of a single quality in two similar things. Thus, "whereas" is used to contrast between extreme examples that represent almost polar opposites of each other. "While", on the other hand, only signals that two things different, and not that they are opposites.
Example of "While"
Before main clause:
-    While land temperatures are measured by the temperature of air about a metre above the earth"s surface, ocean temperatures are measured by the temperature of water. (more common)
After main clause:
-    Land temperatures are measured by the temperature of air about a metre above the earth"s surface,    while ocean temperatures are measured by the temperature of water. (less common)

Example of Whereas
-     Nuclear energy fuel uses only about 4 percent fissionable uranium, whereas a nuclear   weapon uses  100 percent fissionable uranium. Because of this difference, nuclear power  plants cannot explode.
-   The Finns had difficulty supplying their troops with ammunition, whereas the Russians had an     unlimited supply and a vastly superior system of communication.
-     Hydrogen can be used as a motor fuel, whereas neither nuclear nor solar energy can be           used directly for powering an automobile.


Nevertheless ; However
         "Nevertheless" have the same basic concessive meaning as "however“ : They all introduce a sentence that gives information which is unexpected or surprising in light of information given in a previous sentence. Unlike "however", which is based on a positive-to-negative ordering of information, "nevertheless" require an opposite ordering of information, negative-to-positive.
  
Negative ( - )  to Positive ( + )
-   Nuclear fission produces highly toxic radioactive wastes. Nevertheless, it produces no greenhouse gases.

Positive ( + ) to Negative ( - )
-    Nuclear fission produces no greenhouse gases. However, it does produce highly toxic radioactive wastes.
    Nuclear wastes can have half-lives of more than 1000 years  and thus present a clear danger to future generations. Nevertheless, Finland has  decided to build yet another nuclear power plant.

Example of However
Positive ( + ) to Negative ( - ) :
All major studies of the greenhouse effect have concluded that sea level and precipitation will change significantly. However, most engineers and planners implicitly assume that these changes will not occur.

Situation ( + ) to Problem ( - ) :
Sampling techniques developed for attribute inspection have traditionally been designed on the basis of perfect human inspection. However, studies in human factors have shown that human inspection is not error free.

Earlier research ( + ) to Criticism ( - ) :
The prototype training program proved to be successful in improving inspection accuracy. However, it did not show significant improvements in inspection speed.


Despite/in spite of
‘Despite’ and ‘in spite of’ are always followed by a noun, pronoun or -ing  verb form.
"Despite" and "in spite of" express the same meaning.
"Despite" is more formal than "in spite of" and thus more likely to be used in academic writing.
Use these two prepositions to introduce a fact which makes the other part of the sentence seem surprising.


Example Despite/in spite of :
-          The old farmer works hard in his field in spite of fierce sun
-                   Diana is still doing her homework despite being very tired
-          Despite lower carbon dioxide emissions, diesel cars may promote more global warming than gasoline cars.
-         In spite of the cooling tend that has been observed for Antarctica as a whole, one region of the continent has actually  contradicted the mean trend and warmed over the same time  period: the Bellingshausen Sea region.


But ; yet ; still

but” and “yet” show a contrast between two (or more) ideas but it tells the reader nothing about which of the two clauses is more important, the first or the second
Still emphasise that something is surprising, considering what has already been said. “Still” have the same meaning as “Nevertheless “ but more informal (usually in magazine).

Example But ,yet ,still
        Ram likes tea, but Anthony likes coffee.
        These schemes provide a solution, but they are not easy. (with comma)
        These schemes provide a solution but are not easy. (no comma)
        Mr. David is rich, but he is unhappy
        She can play the piano very well, yet she can"t read any music at all.
      The sun was shining and there was no wind, but it was unusually cold. I thought they would still be alive
        We still don"t know whether there are survivors from the plane crash
        I still haven"t spoken to the manager, so don"t know what  my future will be.


  
Modal Perfect
Modal perfect is usually used to express events in the past. Modal perfect used in different conditions according to the forms of modal initially did use modal : Can/could (ability), may/might (possibility) , etc.


The following are some modal perfect including their meanings and examples
Modal Perfect

Meaning

Example

Could have

We had the ability to do something in the past, but we didn’t do it.

The report is considered nonfactual. Renny could have interviewed some people before writing it.

Would have

We wanted to do something, but we didn’t do it in the end.

I would have finished is last nigh. Now I am still doing my work.

Might have

It is possible that something happened in the past, but we aren’t sure.

We did not see Andra at the meeting. He might have forgotten it.

Should have

It was the right thing to do, but we didn’t do it.

Alex had negative thoughts about you. You should have him the truth.


We expected something to happen, but it didn’t.

Lina is disappoited. Her father should have bought her a bicycle.

Must have

We are almost sure something happened in the past.

My younger sister is verry happy. She must have got the doll she longed for some time.


(Modal Perfect)


(Should + have + past participle) :
When the action did not happen and someone is sorry (regrets) that the action did not happen.
  •   I failed the test.  I should have studied last night.
  •   My stomach hurts! I shouldn"t have eaten those four pies .



(Must + have + past participle) :
When you are almost certain that the action happened. Based on facts or current situation, you conclude that the action happened.
  •  Joe looks really tired today.  He must have gone to bed late last night.

                                                                               
(Could + have +  past participle) :
When the speaker had the opportunity to do something, but you are not sure he did it.  You can also use it when the action was possible  but you are not sure if it really happened.
  •  I could have gone to Oxford University but I preferred Harvard University.


(Might + have + past participle) :
When the action was possible, but you are not sure it happened- the same meaning as may have, could have + past participle
  • We did not see Andra at the meeting. He might have forgotten it.


(Would + have + past participle) :
When the action did not happen (conditional) :
  • The young couple would have purchased the house if it had had two bathrooms
  • The negative form would not have + past participle is used when the action actually happened, but it would not have happened if something else occurred first 
  • The pie would not have tasted so sweet if I  had added the correct amount of sugar






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